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Even more reason why we need to protect our Roadless Areas in order to have a place to hunt and fish.
Indirect Impacts of Road-Building in Developing Countries, by Carrie Brunger
Overview
Roads pose a particularly challenging problem to those interested in forest conservation in developing nations (Wilkie et al. 2000). Scientists study the effects of road building from many perspectives including ecological, social, economic, and cultural. While the direct ecological impacts of roads have been well documented, indirect effects are more difficult to quantify and more challenging to examine. This doesn't, however, diminish their impact on local populations, livelihood, biodiversity, and overall human vitality. This review examines some of the major indirect impacts of road building in developing countries in order to understand the factors involved and effects created in this ever-growing business of road building.
Migration
Road building can lead to the resettlement of large numbers of people from rural to urban areas, placing pressure on urban infrastructure. Conversely, roads can facilitate migration of people to once isolated areas, leading to indirect impacts such as increased hunting and poaching, agricultural development, and economic change. Next, I review the impacts of this increased migration and examine the integral role that roads play in migration.
Hunting and Poaching
The increase in access and hunting pressure enabled by road building is one of the major indirect impacts currently addressed by research (Bennett et al. 2001; Fimbel et al. 2001; Wilkie et al. 2000; Auzel et al. 2000; Wilkie et al. 2001; Peres et al. 2003; Minnemeyer 2002). The hunting of wildlife in forests is a common practice associated with timber extraction, mining, agricultural development and deforestation as a whole (Rumiz et al 2001). Many roads created for logging and mining become points of entry into otherwise isolated areas. As a result of such road building in the Republic of Congo, travel time for hunters to reach an access point declined from twelve hours to less than two, turning what was once a four day journey into a one day event (Wilkie 2000). Also, road networks created for logging and mining have been proven to substantially increase access to game while also facilitating transport to markets (Fimbel et al. 2001). Even roads in national reserves have been found to assist poaching and hunting in Bolivia (Townsend 2000) and South Africa (Kotze 2002).
Agricultural Development
Road building can result in a significant loss of productive agricultural lands as they are developed. Research also reveals that roads increase agricultural development in previously isolated areas as migrants pursue economic gain and stability (Mahar 1989; Mahar et al. 1994; Ayres et al. 1991). For example, with the advent of road building in the Amazon basin, settlers, immigrants, colonization enterprises, cattle ranchers, and agricultural projects arrived in the region and created economic opportunities (Ayres et al.1991; Price 1989), while degrading native ecosystems. The same development followed road building halfway around the world in rural Africa (Mwase 1991), Southeast Asia (Kummer and Turner 1994), and in Central America (Chomitz and Gray 1995).
Agricultural development increases primarily through logging practices and government sponsorship. While logging concessions add roads into untouched areas, government colonization programs also increase agricultural development and cattle ranching by providing access and economic incentives to migrate to the frontier (Mahar 1989). In Brazil in the 1960s and 1970s, massive government road projects made large areas accessible for the first time, and agricultural colonization schemes attracted migrants (Mahar 1989). With the development of the government-funded Belem-Brasilia Highway, cattle ranching firms and millions of migrants poured into the rural area. In addition to cheap land, the government offered tax and credit incentives to encourage agriculture. Official estimates suggest that the total human population in the zone of the highway increased from 100,000 in 1960 to about two million ten years later (Mahar 1989).
Economic Growth and Development
National economic growth and development have long been seen as the ultimate goals of road building in developing countries. Roads generate economic growth by creating demand for new services and labor. Employment comes from a variety of sources including farming, logging, selling or maintaining goods, and service related businesses. As logging companies move into an area, employment of local workers rises (Forest Monitor 2003; Bennett and Gumal 2001; Wilkie et al. 2000). But in many cases subsistence opportunities decrease, creating new dependence on a monetary economy that requires increased resource extraction. Additionally, socio-cultural values may be altered and exposure to rapid social change or tourism may create instability in the community (USAID 2003). On the other hand, economic development and long-term, sustainable improvements in society are also indirect impacts of road building in developing countries, measured primarily through developments in healthcare, access to education, infrastructure, commerce and communication systems. Without roads, commerce can barely exist, let alone expand. Not surprisingly, reconstruction of roads is a prominent component of the government's plan to restore the Democratic Republic of Congo's economy (Wilkie et al. 2000). While road building can improve Gross Domestic Product and facilitate international trade, it also dramatically reduces biodiversity, increases habitat fragmentation, and increases economic costs caused by environmental damage like landslides. Additionally, decreases in scenic quality and tourism following road building can result in further economic losses (USAID 2003).
Impacts on Human Health and Safety
There are also a number of indirect impacts on human health and safety resulting from road building (USAID 2003). Unpaved roads generate dust and noise that can negatively affect road construction workers and local communities. Roads increase connections between communities resulting in increased potential for sexually transmitted diseases such as HIV/AIDs and other communicable diseases such as tuberculosis. Additionally, roads with poor drainage create standing water and increase the risk of water born disease such as cholera and malaria. Road improvements increase vehicular speed, which results in increased collisions between both human and animal populations.
Conclusion
Not only do researchers agree that both direct and indirect impacts of road building in developing countries are important topics to examine, but they also focus on solutions to mitigate those impacts. The following suggestions are only the tip of the iceberg in mitigating the impacts of roads in developing countries:
o Developing a strategic approach to road reconstruction (Wilkie et al. 2000);
o Reviewing policies (Mason and Putz 2001, Mahar 1989, Mahar et al. 1994);
o Creating and expanding wildlife reserves in developing countries (Switalski 2002; Smith et al. 1998; Peres 2003);
o Regulating logging transport and requiring road demolition after logging (Auzel et al. 2000; Fimbel et al. 2001; Bennett et al. 2001; Wilkie et al. 2001);
o Examining road construction, tree felling, and extraction methods (Mason and Putz 2001); and,
o Training, educating, and involving local populations (Fimbel et al 2001; Forest Monitor 2003; Buschbacher 1990).
Due to gaps and weaknesses in research methodology, the intricacies of dynamic societies, and evolving cultures, understanding the indirect impacts of roads in developing countries is a challenge. In many cases, information is not easily quantifiable. Expanding the focus of research from ecological effects to include social, cultural and economic effects will benefit sustainable management, habitat vitality and rural livelihood. This shift in research, however, must not only come from individuals but also from the organizations and governments that fund road building. Quantitative research is vital in understanding impacts, but local knowledge and appreciation is also of utmost importance. Road building projects can be both beneficial and detrimental to local cultures, and while environmental impacts such as deforestation and loss of biodiversity may never be eliminated, they can be diminished. To do so, local involvement and understanding must be prioritized. This process, along with appropriate needs assessment, will be key to ensuring that new transportation infrastructures have the least possible impacts. -
Carrie Brunger is a Graduate Student in the Environmental Studies Program at the University of Montana.
References
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